1. Early-modern planning

In the first half of the twentieth century, before the influence of Geddes and Mumford made itself felt, planning had an engineering and architectural bias. This is described as the 'beaux-arts' or 'city beautiful' era. Design and drawing effort were lavished on the environmental equivalents of anatomical drawings, chiefly concerned with the outside appearance of cities. Planning was conceived as 'architecture writ large', extending beyond the confines of individual buildings to focus on the design of streets and facades [Fig 1.10].